An Annotated Bibliography of Applications of Geo-Conductivity Meters

Richard S. Taylor, Dualem Inc.

INTRODUCTION

Geo-conductivity meters (GCMs) map the electrical conductivity of the earth. To maintain convenience of use and to avoid lateral inhomogeneity, GCMs explore depths from 1- to 60-m. Thus, GCMs help to distinguish materials at or near the ground surface, and to assess the geological continuity between sample locations.

Of the physical properties of geological materials, which include density, seismic velocity, susceptibility and capacitivity, electrical conductivity has the greatest range of values.[1] For example, crystalline rock can have negligible conductivity, most soils and porous rocks have moderate conductivity, sea-water and graphite are highly conductive, and the conductivity of millerite is one-twentieth that of copper.

The mapping of conductivity yields a great deal of information for many applications. GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION has been prominent among these since the first electromagnetic instruments for geophysics were developed in the 1920s.[2] GCMs are most frequently applied to exploration for aggregates, aquifers, cavities, faults, and soils.

AGRICULTURE is the basis of second group of applications. GCMs are used to map the characteristics and extent of agricultural soils, manage irrigation, nutrients and yields, and monitor agricultural wastes.

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING applications deal with subsurface changes that extend from industrial activity at the surface. Such activity generally increases the conductivity of the subsurface through the introduction or redistribution of chemicals, and these can be spread by water in the ground. GCMs are well suited to indicating the extent, intensity, and change in these effects. The most common applications are the monitoring of contamination by wastes from base-metal mining, chemical manufacturing, coal mining and power generation, ferrous metals and metal processing, forestry and construction, mineral and ceramic mining and manufacturing, oil and gas production, road maintenance, as well as hazardous, miscellaneous and organic wastes.

Other forms of human activity, which are not necessarily related to water in the ground, can have varied effects on conductivity. BURIED-FEATURE DETECTION by GCMs has two typical and often related targets, i.e. the detection of buried metal and of disturbed ground. Applications are most frequent in the areas of archaeology, environmental assessment, and forensic and geotechnical investigation.

Natural materials and artificial features share a broad range of conductivity. Accordingly, the various applications of GCMs have much in common with regard to instrumentation and technique. Thus, examples of one application often are relevant to other applications. Another tie between applications arises from the ability of instrumentation to detect, simultaneously, features of contrasting character.

Some of the common aspects of applications are mentioned in the descriptions that follow. Within each category, endnote references to published examples are ordered, generally, from most- to least-recent.

GEOLOGICAL EXPLORATION

The most common of the geological materials sought in GCM surveys are aggregates, aquifers, cavities, faults, and soils. Compared to other EM instruments, GCMs are used infrequently for mining exploration; exceptions are exploration for kaolin,[3]^,[4] kimberlite,[5] and for oil-sands,[6]^,[7] where bitumen-saturation decreases conductivity.

Aggregates

Sand and gravel are resistive materials, and aggregate deposits are resistive if their pore fluid is resistive. GCMs can define the limits of deposits if these materials are contained in more conductive material such as clay or silt, and if the limits lie well within the depth of exploration. Cases describe exploring:

· a gravel deposit and the thickness of overlying clay,[8]

· a gravel deposit from surface to a 15-m depth,[9]

· shallowly-buried gravel, sand and silt horizons,[10]

· sand and gravel under overburden,[11] and

· reconnaissance surveys for sand and gravel.[12]

Deposits of aggregates are hydraulically conductive, and some cases in Aquifers deal with exploration for aggregates below the water table. Where soil stability is of interest, the cases are found under Soils. Aggregates containing wastes are found under ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING.

Aquifers

Of the many types of aquifers, GCMs map those with an electrical conductivity that contrasts with surrounding material. Some aquifers are relatively conductive, such as:

· troughs in deeply weathered bedrock, and

· sediments on resistive bedrock.

Resistive aquifers include:

· coarse material bounded by conductive sediments or bedrock, and

· fresh portions of saline aquifers.

Troughs in Deeply Weathered Bedrock

Intense weathering of bedrock tends to increase its porosity and electrical conductivity.[13] Aquifers can form where weathering is particularly extensive or deep, such as in fracture zones. Published examples describe the use of GCMs to:

· locate aquiferous faults associated with photo-lineaments in Brazil,[14] western[15] and southern Africa,[16]^,[17]

· double the success-rate of drilling wells in fractured bedrock,[18]^{, [19]}

· locate aquifers in bedrock and alluvium with reference to modelled conductivity,[20]^, [21]

· site wells in weathered granite, fractured granite and fractured diabase,[22]

· map aquifers of weathered basalt in sedimentary and metamorphic rock in Yemen,[23]

· locate bedrock fracture zones under the Kaduna plain, Nigeria,[24]

· site wells and investigate a correlation between conductivity and water discharge,[25]

· delineate moderate to large faults in granite,[26]

· site 364 productive wells out of 419 boreholes to the top of bedrock,[27]

· increase the success rate of drilling productive wells,[28] and

· determine the depth to bedrock at a well site.[29]

Sediments on Resistive Bedrock

Glacial and alluvial material deposited in lows on the bedrock-surface form aquifers that can be mapped with GCMs, where the aquifer has moderate conductivity and the bedrock is resistive. Examples include:

· fractured metasediments in South Australia,[30]^{, [31]}

· tracing crystalline-bedrock fractures beneath a dry river-channel,[32]^{, [33]}

· mapping marine clays over fractured granofels, and thin soil over jointed sedimentary rock,³³

· siting a high-capacity well in fractured dolomite,[34]

· mapping the thickness of coarse glacial sediments on crystalline bedrock,[35]

· locating productive wells on fractures in karst,[36]

· locating a well and potential sites in fractured dolomite, sandstone and granite,[37]

· profiling the depths of the water table and fractured gneissic bedrock beneath a surficial aquifer,[38]

· profiling fractures in water-yielding zone of dolomite,[39]

· identifying an aquifer leading down-gradient from a hazardous waste site,[40]

· mapping 10 ha of fractured bedrock near a proposed site for low-level radioactive waste,[41]

· detecting saturated material in an alluvium-filled basin[42] and aquifer,[43] and

· tracing a water-bearing fault in granite.[44]

Coarse Material Bounded by Conductive Sediments or Bedrock

Sands and gravels saturated with freshwater are more resistive than aquitards that are rich in clay or carbon. GCMs can map these conductive aquitards, and thus infer some boundaries of the aquifer, as in the following examples of:

· a coase-grained gap in a riverbed aquitard,[45]

· coarse channels in glacial sediments,⁶

· channel sand surrounded and thinly covered by clay,[46]

· sands and silt bounded by clay,[47]

· fine-grained sediments in a Nevada basin,[48]

· coarse channels in fine-grained overbank deposits[49] over fractured bedrock,[50]

· a sand-filled fracture in clay-bearing limestone,[51]

· coarse glacial material on sedimentary bedrock, on fine-grained glacial material, and within fine-grained glacial material,³⁵

· clay and sand on shale,[52]

· clay and sand in a regional aquifer,[53]

· clay separating two coastal-plain aquifers,[54]

· gravel lenses on the bank of the Red Deer River,[55]

· small channels of alluvium on shale and siltstone,[56]

· buried river-channels beneath the northern plain of Haiti,[57]

· paleochannels on shale bedrock in Abu Dhabi[58] and in river deposits in Niger,[59]

· low-sinuosity channels, meandering channels and floodplain deposits in Nigeria,²⁰

· layering of coarse- and fine-grained material in glacial aquifers,[60]

· sand channels in clay-rich deposits,[61] and

· an area of 375 km², where clay of varying thickness caps aquifers in sandstone and dolomite.[62]

Fresh Portions of Saline Aquifers

As saline water is denser than fresh water, saline aquifers can support lenses of fresh-water near the water-table. Examples describe mapping:

· coastal environments on a barrier island,[63]

· salinization of soil and an aquifer from a flowing artesian well,[64]

· tidal infiltration and flow-channels for saltwater in beach sands,[65]

· seawater intrusion near a canal,[66]

· the freshwater lens beneath Isla de Mona, Pueto Rico,[67]^{, [68]}

· reef-facies limestone,[69] and freshwater in 20 km² of reef-facies limestone in south Florida,[70]

· the depth to saltwater in sand under Long Island,[71]

· salinity in the Mississippi delta,[72]

· freshwater lenses beneath atoll islands in Micronesia,[73]

· freshwater lenses under islands composed of sand and oolitic limestone,[74]^{, [75]}

· the depth to saltwater in Kent,[76] Cape Cod,[77] and Florida,[78]^{, [79]}

· freshwater lenses in salty tidal-sand deposits,[80]

· a plume of brackish water from an artesian well,[81]^{, [82]}

· a channel of gravel saturated with brackish water at a depth of 60 m,[83] and

· freshwater accumulations in alluvial sediments in the Punjab.[84]

Cases of exploration for sand-and-gravel as a mineral resource are found in Aggregates; geotechnical cases of unconsolidated materials are under Soils, and of bedrock are under Cavities and Faults. Aquifers affected by waste are under ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING.

Cavities

Detection of air-filled cavities is difficult with EM, as there is no response from the air, and materials that sustain cavities tend to be resistive as well. If the material around the cavity is conductive, EM response will fluctuate, but interpretation remains difficult. Detection becomes easier as the conductivity of the material filling the cavity increases. GCMs have been used to:

· confirm zones of soil piping over sinkholes,[85]^{, [86]}

· identify undocumented excavations in a coal seam beneath about 9 m of clay, shale and siltstone,[87]

· map sinkholes partially filled with clay,[88]

· map conductivity over snake hibernacula,[89]

· map loess-filled fractures in limestone,[90]

· locate sediment-filled cavities in limestone,[91]

· find dolines[92] and a collapse-feature,[93]

· identify unstable cavities in clayey soil,[94]

· delimit active- and incipient-sinkholes in karst[95] and voids in limestone,[96] and

· map prehistoric fireholes in brown coal, now filled with unstable peat and clay.[97]

Cases of cavities or unstable ground created by human activity are found under BURIED-FEATURE DETECTION.

Faults

In resistive bedrock, the increased porosity of fracture-zones can increase conductivity, especially if the pore-fluid is conductive. Fault-mapping helps predict the stability of ground and structures, where the ground will come under stress due to human activity or natural phenomena. GCMs have been used to:

· delineate recently active portions of macroscopic fault zones in Belgium[98] and New Zealand, [99]

· infer the location of a fault between sandy and clayey soil,[100]

· identify fractures[101] and karst fissures[102] near landfills,

· locate faults in siltstone and shale beneath a thin cover of clay,[103]

· locate leaking faults in gypsum bedrock at dam site,[104]

· map seeping faults beneath and adjacent to a dam,[105]

· map vertical fractures in gypsum,⁸² and

· map troughs in bedrock associated with phyllite at a development site.[106]

Cases in which the water-yield of faults is of greatest interest are found under Aquifers, and cases where faults are the conduits of waste are found under ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING.

Soils

The mapping of soil-types, including frozen ground, is of great importance in geotechnical assessment. Soil conductivities grade through a middle range of values. Soils show a characteristic increase in conductivity with clay-content, and the conductivity of coarse soils is strongly influenced by that of the pore-fluid they contain. Freezing greatly reduces the conductivity of soil. GCMs have been used to investigate:

· salt storage and transport in South Australia,[107]

· water content of Chihuahuan Desert soils,[108]

· alluvial materials and paleochannels,[109]

· distribution of arsenic in deltaic sediments,[110]

· heterogeneity in glacial deposits that affects groundwater flow,[111]

· confining glaciomarine sediments in peatland,[112]

· the depth of dry, residual soil on basalt,[113]

· the extent of salinization in an area of salt scalds,[114]

· the limits of a landslide of gypsum and alpine soil,[115]

· buried paleochannels of sand and clay in the flood plain of the Mississippi River,[116]

· the thickness of clay soil over void-bearing limestone,[117]

· earthquake-induced liquefaction features,[118]

· river-channel sediments,[119]

· a delta of glacial sands,[120]

· clay layers in glacial sediments,[121]

· desert caliche,[122]

· variations in sandy soil at an archaeological site,[123]

· fine- and coarse-tills in forest soils,[124]

· water content of desert soils[125] and the potential for riparian restoration[126] in New Mexico,

· the hydraulic conductivity of coarse soil[127],

· sand and clay at the bottom of the Delaware River shipping channel,[128]

· sand and clay in buried valleys,[129]

· clays, sand and gravel above carbonate bedrock,[130]

· sand and gravel beneath till,[131]

· unconsolidated materials, shales and sandstones under till,[132]

· buried glacial channels on chalk bedrock,[133]

· overburden depth at a limestone quarry,[134] and

· changes in the depth of glacial material on crystalline bedrock.[135]

Investigations of frozen ground have included:

· the thickness of sea-ice, [136]^{, [137], [138], [139], [140], [141]}

· the active zone in river valley sediments,[142]

· shallow unfrozen zones in the Mackenzie delta,[143]

· frozen zones in silt on a highway route,¹⁰

· permafrost at a construction site,[144] and

· 800 km of discontinuous permafrost along a pipeline route.[145]

GCMs have characterized corrosive ground to aid in the design of cathodic protection systems.[146]

A separate section is devoted to agricultural soils. Cases dealing with soil and groundwater are found under Aquifers, cases dealing with soil and industrial wastes are found under ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING, and disturbed soils and soils containing metal are found under BURIED-FEATURE DETECTION.

AGRICULTURE

In addition to mapping the conductive nature of agricultural soils, GCMs find routine application in assessing the effects of fertilization, irrigation and cropping, and in monitoring agricultural wastes.

Agricultural Soil Mapping

GCMs are sensitive to both the amount and the ionic characteristics of clay and moisture in soils. In agricultural soils, GCMs have been used to research:

· the density[147] and strength[148] of claypan soils,

· compaction,[149] spatial variability,[150]^{, [151], [152]} and salinity[153] in fine soils of central California,

· clay content in the lower Macquarie Valley, NSW,[154] at twelve sites across the north-central USA,[155] and in Arizona,[156]

· soil-water content in a vertisol and a clay loam,[157]

· vertisol depth to carbonate bedrock,[158]

· the sampling of soil properties that influence seed-cotton yield,[159]

· soil moisture and salinity at twelve sites through western North America,[160]

· clay content and cation exchange capacity on 4 fields in Illinois and Missouri,[161]

· boundaries between clay loam and sandy loam,[162]

· lateral variability of salinity in a surface-irrigated olive plantation,[163]

· potential crop-management zones in two paddocks,[164]

· depth of salinity in southeast Queensland,[165]

· waterlogging, saline and acid land-degradation,[166]

· the effective cation exchange capacity in an irrigated-cotton field,[167]

· coarse-loamy to fine-loamy soil gradation, related to crop yield,[168]

· variations in soil morphology in the southern Mississippi Valley silty uplands,[169]

· wetland boundaries in South Dakota,[170]

· clay content of soils in the central US, ^{[171], [172]}

· depth profiles of conductivity in saline soils in California,[173]

· the clay content of alluvial soils in southeastern Missouri,[174]

· the effect on conductivity of soil water-, clay- and carbonate-content and soil temperature,[175]

· gradational boundaries of moraine soils,[176]

· salinity in reclaimed coastal land,[177]

· salinity in the Tragowel Plains,[178] Wimmera,[179] Kyvalley[180] and Pyramid Hill[181] areas, and the source of subsurface salinity[182]^{, [183]} in Victoria, Australia,

· salinity in locally irrigated grazing- and cropping-paddocks in Tasmania,[184]

· clay-content variability in flat, loamy fields in Brandenburg,[185]

· subsurface flow[186]^{, [187], [188]} and leaching[189] in loessial soils,[190]^{, [191]}

· clay content,[192]^, and clay-, moisture- and chloride-content in semiarid soils,[193]

· topsoil depth,[194]

· salinity in somewhat poorly drained flood-plain alluvium,[195]

· aeolian and debris-flow sediments that bear saline scalds,[196]^{, [197]}

· salinity remaining from old geomorphology,[198]

· parna (clay-size aeolian sediment), as an agent of soil salinification,[199]

· subsurface flow in loessial soils,

· smectite-clay and sand in an area of dryland salinity, [200]^{, [201]}

· topsoil thickness over claypan,[202]^{, [203], [204]}

· steppe-region loess thickness over basalt,[205]

· moisture in medium textured soils in Tunisia and Mexico,[206]

· soil conditions that stunt the growth of cotton,¹¹⁸

· the depth of rangeland soils,[207]

· soil-water content and salinity,[208]

· floodplain clay-loam,[209]

· salt-tolerance of trees and grasses in Alberta and Western Australia,[210] and identify areas suitable for small plantations of eucalyptus,[211]

· saline seeps and recharges in deep, well-drained soils in Kansas,[212]

· flood-deposited sand on river-bottom farmland,[213]^{, [214]}

· soil-solution partition coefficient in loamy soils,[215]

· Na-affected loess in Illinois,[216]

· salinity at El Guettar oasis, Tunisia,[217]

· salinity over large areas[218]^{, [219]} and in clay soils[220] in N.ew South Wales, and over an artesian aquifer in Tasmania,[221]

· a saline area used to test the establishment of tree species in eastern Australia,[222]

· salinity using GPS[223] and a towed sled,[224]

· salt distribution throughout catchments in the wheatbelt of Western Australia[225],

· the depth to claypan in agricultural loess,[226]

· soil textures and their influence on groundwater recharge[227]^{, [228]} and conditions for saltbush (Atriplex) growth in South Australia,[229]

· Natraqualfs vs. Ochraqualfs,[230]

· conductivity-versus-depth[231]^{, [232], [233], [234]} and test conductivity models[235]^{, [236]} with soils in California,

· forest-soil quality in Ontario,[237]

· the effect of bedrock highs on salinization in Western Australia,[238]^{, [239]}

· EC_e values[240] and assess a loamy soil[241] in Alberta,

· water content in grey-brown Luvisol,[242]

· the salinity of medium-textured soil[243] and naturally saline soils[244] in North Dakota,

· soluble-salts and clays in New South Wales,[245]

· salinity associated with seeps and artesian discharges in Saskatchewan,[246]^{, [247], [248]}

· salinity in Haploborolls and Calciaquolls,[249]

· the salinity hazard throughout 300 km² of sugarcane plantation,[250] and

· the source of subsurface salinity in Thailand.[251]

Moisture, Nutrient and Yield Management

By mapping spatial and temporal fluctuations in conductivity, GCMs can provide vital information for agricultural management. GCMs have been used to:

· track N dynamics, identify management zones, [252] monitor soil quality and design experiments,[253]

· delineate productivity zones[254] and crop-management areas in claypan soils,[255]^{, [256]}

· identify soybean management zones,[257]

· manage N and water in saline sugar-beet fields,[258]

· assess salt removal by whole-field leaching,¹⁵⁶

· confirm areas of pastures amenable to legumes,[259]

· monitor changes in available N following fertilization and during corn growth, and the effectiveness of cover crops in managing N loss, [260]^{, [261], [262], [263], [264]}

· map water-table depth in citrus groves,[265]

· monitor the effect of rice irrigation on soil salinity,[266]

· provide a basis for management of winter wheat,[267]

· analyze yields of corn and soybeans,[268]^{, [269]}

· predict emergence and yield of corn[270] and soybeans, [271]

· indicate soil moisture from field capacity to near wilting point in an irrigated alfalfa field,[272]

· monitor remediation of saline seeps in loamy soils and loess,[273]

· track the temporal diffusion of nutrients from livestock manure, [274]

· predict salinity in irrigated cotton-growing vertisols, [275]^{, [276]}

· assess the relationship between crop yield and soil salinity, and produce maps for farm management,[277]

· map pastures fertilized with dairy manure and poultry litter,[278]

· measure the temporal[279] effects of manure and compost in a cornfield,[280]^{, [281]}

· monitor temporal changes in the salinity of irrigated land in Spain,[282]

· relate salinity to irrigation, drainage and tillage, [283]

· predict salinity over cotton-fields in California, using geostatistics [284]^{, [285]} and linear regression, [286]

· correlate soil drainage and yield,[287]

· assess salinity on irrigated land in Pakistan[288] and in Spain.[289]

Agricultural Wastes

GCMs have been used to map agricultural wastes related to:

· nutrient buildup and movement at an abandoned manure handling site, [290]

· a feedlot pen, [291]^{, [292]}

· waste lagoons, loafing areas and pastures,²⁷⁸

· a compost site and a feedlot-runoff pond,[293]^{, [294]}

· feedlot-runoff retention ponds,[295]

· swine confinements and waste lagoons in Manitoba[296] and North Carolina,[297]^{, [298], [299], [300], [301]}

· dairy-herd loafing areas,[302]

· pesticide-soil partitioning,[303]

· animal-waste lagoons,[304]^{, [305], [306], [307]}

· drainages of cultivated fields,[308] and

· a facility for processing sugar-cane.³²³

ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING

Environmental-monitoring applications may be classified according to the origin of the contamination of soils and groundwater by human activity. Landfills of domestic- and mixed-waste, especially in moist regions, generate conductive leachate from municipal waste. Many industrial and commercial processes, such as base-metal mining, chemical manufacturing, coal mining and power-generation, ferrous metals and metal processing, forestry and construction, mineral and ceramic mining and manufacturing, oil & gas production, and road maintenance produce conductive wastes. There are hazardous wastes, miscellaneous wastes, and organics. GCMs are used to monitor the containment of wastes on site, or the spread of contamination into local aquifers.

Municipal Waste

Mapping the extent of groundwater contamination from landfill-leachate is a widespread application of GCMs. GCMs respond to the conductivity of the leachate, which arises from the salts and acids produced by the decomposition of waste, such as food and paper, in the landfill. The examples in this section make little note of the specific contents of the landfill (if they are known), but concentrate on the climatic, hydrogeologic and cultural settings, such as:

· glacial sediments in northeastern Newfoundland[309]^{, [310]}

· glacial sediments in Switzerland, [311]^{, [312], [313]}

· coastal sediments with interbedded aquicludes near Christchurch,[314] ^{, [315]}

· sand in Nebraska,[316]

· peat in northern Finland,[317]

· clayey till in southern Sweden,[318]

· alluvium and bedrock in the Adirondack Mountains, New York,[319]

· dune sands in Portugal,[320]

· submerged silts at the edge of Pearl Harbor,[321]

· an excavation in boulder-clay at Kiel, Germany,[322]

· the head of a small valley in Saõ Paulo State,[323]

· porous sandstone in Yorkshire,[324]

· clayey till in Indiana,[325]

· deeply weathered sandstone in southern Brazil,[326]

· the Biscayne aquifer in Miami, with repeated surveys after changes in landfill and pumping operations,⁸²

· hilly coastal-plain sands in New Jersey,[327]

· unconfined glacial sediments in Massachusetts,[328]

· compacted in-situ material in Maryland,[329]

· medium-to-fine sand in Ontario,[330]

· thick sand in The Netherlands,²⁹

· two sites on the Missouri River floodplain,[331]

· stratified drift in Connecticut,[332] and

· thinly covered limestone, thinly covered shale, fractured clay, and thick glaciofluvial sands in Ontario.[333]

Failed sceptic fields in suburban and rural areas constitute a widespread source of municipal waste. The convenience and spatial resolution of GCMs make them well suited to mapping such numerous and small sites.[334]

Specific wastes may be produced by industrial and commercial activities, but many of the wastes are conductive. Documented cases of GCM application cluster into the following categories.

Base-Metal Mining

· tailings from Cu-Zn ores in southwestern Tennessee,[335]

· tailings of Ni-Cu sulfide ore[336] in permafrost,[337]

· tailings from disseminated-sulfide ores,[338]

· smelter slag,[339]

· tailings of polymetallic sulfide-ore,[340]

· rock-dumps and tailings,[341] and

· sulfide pillars near Galena, Kansas;[342]

Chemical Manufacturing

· site of a former disinfectant factory,[343]

· piles of grey and red waste,[344]

· industrial solvents and sludge,[345]

· industrial-waste lagoons,[346]

· lagoon sludge,[347]^{, 415}

· back-filled lagoons and old drums for organics,⁴¹⁵

· paints and solvents,[348]

· acidic solvents,[349]

· wastewater-treatment waste from the manufacturing of organic compounds,[350]

· fluids from cleaning chemical-transport trucks,³⁵⁰

· tank rinse-water,[351]

· sodium iodide, silver-salts and explosives,[352]

· drilling mud from an injection well,[353] and

· solid and liquid industrial waste, and herbicide-pesticide sludge;³⁸⁶

Coal Mining and Power-Generation

· acidic and alkaline plumes near mined areas and treatment trenches,[354]

· a burning coil-spoil,[355]

· power-plant wastewater,[356]

· a large ash-dump,[357] and

· spoil piles;[358]

Ferrous Metals and Metal Processing

· metal-working and steel-plating,³⁴³

· steel-galvanizing,[359]

· heavy metals,[360]

· foundry casting-sand, rubber byproducts and construction debris,[361]

· magnesium refining and titanium processing,^{400, 401}

· metal-hydroxide sludge,[362] and

· acids with heavy metals;[363]

Forestry and Construction

· ash, wood and construction debris, with minor food waste, at CFB Borden,[364]^,[365],357

· preservatives at an inactive wood-treatment facility,[366] and

· construction waste and metal drums;[367]

Mineral and Ceramic Mining and Manufacturing

· pits, landfills, foundations and slag at a former brickworks, [368]^,[369]

· potash-mine waste,[370] and

· an abandoned ceramics factory;[371]

Oil & Gas Production

· brine discharged into an alluvial terrace, [372]

· drilling mud in permafrost,³³⁷

· leachate^6,[373] and caustic soda[374] from oil-sands processing,

· seepage in the Ogallala formation from long-dormant evaporation ponds in west Texas,[375]

· leakage from brine-injection wells, oil wells,[376]^{, [377], [378]} pipelines and storage tanks,[379]

· flare-pits[380] and burn-pits,³⁵⁹

· construction- and process-waste from a gas plant,[381]

· leakage from brine-evaporation ponds,[382]^{, 381, [383]}

· pitch ponds,[384]

· a buried drilling-fluid pit,[385]

· oil reclamation sludge,[386] and

· crude oils, sulfides, waxes and non-chlorinated hydrocarbons;[387]

Road Maintenance

· sand/salt storage on an unconfined aquifer,¹¹¹

· sand/salt pile on fractured bedrock, [388]^{, [389], [390]} and

· salt from a highway;[391]

Hazardous Wastes

· low-level radioactive waste[392]^{, [393], [394]} and seeping waste-trenches,[395]

· various inorganic compounds,[396]

· radioactive solutions,[397]^{, [398]}

· solvents, acids, cyanide, flue dust, battery chips and animal by-products,[399]

· pesticides and other wastes,[400]^, [401]

· toxic and organic chemical wastes,³³⁰ and

· chemical wastes;[402]^{, [403]}

Miscellaneous Wastes

· leachate from a cemetery in heterogenous sediments underlain by crystalline rock,[404]

· manufacturing residue, with mud and coarse fill,[405]

· inorganic leachate with some organics,[406]

· residential waste, commercial solid-waste and construction debris,[407]

· drums, scrap metal, oil and other waste in a buried trench,[408]

· rubbish, laboratory waste, chemicals, debris, coal ash, sorbent and scrap metal,[409]

· drilling mud,[410]^{, [411]}

· incinerator ash, metal and fill,[412]

· pharmaceutical incinerator residue,[413]

· ash, fill and other wastes,[414]

· fire-fighting chemicals,[415]

· lumber, debris, asphalt, drums of chemicals, asbestos, resins, minerals and cafeteria waste,[416]^{, [417]} and

· an inorganic chemical spill,⁸² and the development of the contaminant plume in the weeks following the spill.

Organics (for which conductivity changes are highly variable with contaminant, geology and time)

· leakage from fuel-storage tanks into mixed glacial soils[418]

· various hydrocarbons,[419]^{, [420] , [421], [422]}

· shallow creosote contamination of clay soils,[423]

· tarry contaminants at a disused oil-distribution site,[424]

· an LNAPL plume in an earthy fill, where the water-table is about 3 m below surface,[425]

· coal-gasification,[426]

· subsurface gasoline spills,[427]^{, [428]}

· gasoline and other petroleum products,³⁵⁰ and

· jet-fuel.[429]^{, [430], [431]}

BURIED-FEATURE DETECTION

Archaeology

Archaeological use of GCMs is based on changes in conductivity that can arise from soil disturbance, which may be coupled with fluctuations in EM response caused by buried metal or the re-magnetization of ground beneath fires. Some of the archaeological sites and applications have been:

· prehistoric earthworks,[432] and the base of a palisade,[433]

· foundation remnants and ancient graves,[434]

· tombs flooded with conductive wastewater,[435]

· an ancient depression crossed by a lost cable,[436]

· an ancient villa in Rome, with a variable thickness of fill over conductive bedrock,[437]

· known, probable and possible graves in-and-adjacent-to an aboriginal burial site,[438]

· an embankment in ancient Alexandria, Bronze Age axe deposits, and a medieval metal-working site,[439]

· beach sands and tidal flats in Hawaii in search for a stone colossus,[440]

· earthworks and metallic debris at the Petersburg National Battlefield in Virginia, with reference to tests for noise and the responses of known objects,¹²³

· a pre-historic pit-house in western Colorado,[441]

· a pre-historic tomb in Switzerland,[442]

· metallic responses in anecdotal graveyards,[443]^{, 445}

· the site of the Wright Brothers’ 1910 Hangar, with buried metal-objects,[444]

· known and probable grave-shafts,[445]

· covered excavations around the pyramid of Pepi I,[446]

· bronze bells and spearheads,[447]

· burial-chambers in Jordan and Bahrain, an ancient canal, and mud-brick structures in Kuwait,[448]

· burnt clay at a Gallo-Roman pottery site,[449]

· a buried stone-foundation in Maryland,[450]

· buried fortifications and protohistoric mounds,[451] and

· a buried ditch and post-holes at Cadbury Castle, Somerset.[452]

Environmental Assessment

For environmental assessment, GCMs are used typically to detect metallic objects that are related to subsurface contamination, as demonstrated by cases of mapping:

· steel objects of known depth,^{364, [453], [454]}

· an abandoned and buried oil-storage reservoir,[455]

· objects in mine tailings,[456]

· a tank farm with sub-surface electrical services,[457]

· buried structures and services at the Manhattan Project site,[458]

· buried objects at the Idaho National Engineering Laboratory,[459][460]

· metal in filled trenches,[461]

· a UST beneath asphalt, and metal in fill,[462]

· metal drums in low-level radioactive waste,[463]

· drums in mixed-waste,[464]^{, 345}

· an undocumented disposal of drums,[465]

· underground storage tanks,[466]^{, [467]}

· metal objects at test sites,[468]^{, [469], [470]}

· 4,500 m of fuel line and over 100 underground storage tanks,[471]

· structures under an old tank-farm,[472]

· drums containing hazardous waste in a burning landfill,[473]

· reclaimed urban sites,[474]^{, [475]}

· tanks of steel and reinforced concrete,[476] and

· gasoline tanks under an abandoned site.[477]

Forensic and Geotechnical Investigation

Buried metal and disturbed ground that have been of interest for forensic, geotechnical and related reasons include:

· agricultural drainage tiles, ^{156, [478]}

· soil cover at a failed earthen dam,[479]

· a bunker at a former ordnance plant,[480]

· non-magnetic buried cables,[481]^{, [482]}

· clandestine tunnels,[483]

· subsidence-fractures in glacial drift,^{85, [484], [485], [486]}

· simulated clandestine graves,[487]

· desaturated gravel above a drainage conduit,[488]

· an undocumented landfill,[489]

· abandoned mine-excavations,³⁴² and

· fractures around underground openings in salt.[490]

---

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